Chapter 1

Chapter 1. Philosophy of Research

   This essay offers a definition of research, a brief description of the two major approaches to research (quantitative and qualitative), some of the advantages of qualitative research, and argues for the appropriateness of qualitative research in most theological study.

   In the 1989 Midwest Research to Practice Conference, meeting at the University of Missouri, James H. McElhinny defined research as "a systematic way of asking intelligent questions about important topics that yields dependable answers."  The four key terms in his definition are: systematic; intelligent; important; and dependable.

   Systematic: Research is carefully planned and data are judiciously analyzed. Research activities are guided by a theoretical rationale which provides unity and cohesion.

   Intelligent: Researchers question and re-examine traditions, other related research, and their own conceptual framework. They discriminate between what is relevant and what is irrelevant.

   Important: Research contributes to what is already known about an area of inquiry, in a manner which makes substantial differences in the lives of people. Research is worth the effort expended.

   Dependable: Research yields answers which approximate truth. It also identifies areas for further inquiry.

   Currently there are two general categories of research methodologies: quantitative and qualitative. Each has a discrete set of assumptions about reality, acceptable practices, rhetoric, and kinds of results.

                    Quantitative Research Methods

   These methods are built on logical positivism, an epistemological stance that has been severely criticized for more than 45 years (Kenneth R. Howe 1985:10). The positivist philosophy "assumes that there are social facts with an objective reality apart from the beliefs of individuals" (William A. Firestone 1987:16). Therefore, quantitative methods attempt to explain social changes through the use of objective measures and statistical analysis.

   Quantitative researchers attempt to achieve objectivity by using experimental designs and correlational studies, thinking that these techniques will reduce or eliminate error and bias. They therefore place heavy emphasis on procedures, methodologies, and statistics.

   Their reports rely heavily on the rhetoric of validity, reliability, generalizability, replicability, and predictability. Validity means that an instrument actually measures what it claims to measure; reliability means that an instrument consistently yields the same results, and is often tested by administering the instrument to the same group of people on two separate occasions; the intent of generalizability is to estimate the extent to which data will be true for similar groups in similar situations (if something was true for this group of people, it should likewise be true for another group); replicability means the extent to which research can be repeated with similar results; and predictability is the estimated likelihood that research accurately predicts the future.

                     Qualitative Research Methods

   These methods are built on a post positivistic, phenomenological world view, which assumes "that reality is socially constructed through individual or collective definitions of the situation" (Firestone 1987:16). The purpose of qualitative research is to understand the current social situation, from the point of view of the participants. Therefore, the researcher becomes "'immersed' in the phenomenon of interest" (1987:17).

   In qualitative research, the emphasis is on collecting data that lead to dependable answers to important questions, reported in sufficient detail that it has meaning to the reader. "The proto-typical qualitative study is the ethnography which helps the reader understand the definitions of the situation of those studied" (1987:17).

   Qualitative research reports include descriptions, judgments, and evaluations. Because of a qualitative researcher's post-positivistic paradigm, there is little or no attention paid to statistics of validity, reliability, generalizability, replicability, and predictability, as used by quantitative researchers. Emphasis is laid on dependability, which is enhanced by the use of prolonged engagement in the field, triangulation, case analyses, auditing, and/or checks by stakeholders (McElhinny 1989:4).

   One of the qualitative approaches is descriptive research. According to David R. Krathwohl, "Descriptive research involves collecting data in order to answer questions . . . about the current status of the situation under study" (1985:178). If statistics are used, they are descriptive, not inferential, merely providing a description of the variables. No attempt is made to test hypotheses, control variables, measure the strength of relationships, or establish statistical significance. The intention of descriptive research is to develop a purposeful, systematic, intelligent, and accurate description of some particular situation.     Questionnaires and surveys of persons' judgments are examples of descriptive research methods. Further information on descriptive research methods is available in the writings of Firestone 1987, Yvonna S. Lincoln and Egon G. Guba 1985, LaVerne Ludden 1984, and Sharan B. Merriam n.d.

   Qualitative research has the following advantages:

     1. It allows the researcher to describe existing phenomena and current situations.

     2. It is useful in examining the totality of a unit.

     3. It yields results that can be helpful in pioneering new ground.

   Qualitative methods are appropriate for theological study for the following reasons:

1.       The phenomenological, post-positivistic paradigm of qualitative research is more congruent with the realities most often of interest to theological study than the logical positivism of quantitative research. In ministry, absolute objectivity is not attainable; therefore, attempts to approach objectivity via quantitative procedures are illusory. The subjective beliefs, judgments, experiences, and values of individuals and groups, combined, are important and valuable; therefore, they ought to be collected, studied, and learned from. 

2.       The research questions in much theological study do not lend themselves to experimental design or correlational study, quantitative methods. Qualitative methods are well suited for most research questions relevant to ministry.

3.       Replicability, a quantitative concept, is generally not an issue in theological study. Although interviews and surveys can be repeated, the population supplying the data cannot be replicated. This is true, first, because the research questions are developed specifically with a particular population in mind, at a specific time and place in history, and second, because even if the same research questions were used with the same individuals at a later time, their experience would be different, which could change their answers to the questions.

4.       Predictability, a quantitative concept, is not usually an issue in theological study. Ministers do not generally attempt to control people's behavior, which is the major purpose of predictability (if one does "A," people will respond with "B").

5.       Qualitative research is useful in understanding a current social situation, an interest of much theological study. Therefore, qualitative research methods are appropriate.

6.       Quite often, theological research intends to pioneer new ground, one of the strengths of qualitative methodologies. In such instances, a qualitative approach is appropriate.

   Students planning to undertake research at Anderson University School of Theology are advised to give careful consideration to their purpose and goal before selecting either a quantitative or qualitative design. They are also advised to consult with faculty members before designing any research project.

                                                           -- John H. Aukerman